Pharmaceutical Contaminants as Stressors on Rocky Intertidal and Estuarine Organisms: a Case Study of Fuoxetine

............................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ......................................................................................................................x Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Long-term exposure to fluoxetine reduces growth and reproductive potential in the mussel, Mytilus californianus Introduction ..............................................................................................................5 Materials and methods .............................................................................................8 Experimental animals and holding conditions .............................................8 Experimental design...................................................................................10 Fluoxetine exposure study .........................................................................12 1. Clearance rates .....................................................................................12 2. Mussel growth ......................................................................................13 3. Body condition .....................................................................................13 4. Statistical analysis ................................................................................14 Results ....................................................................................................................15 Discussion ..............................................................................................................22 Chapter 3: Exposure to nominal concentrations of the pharmaceutical stressor fluoxetine increases predation risk in the mud crab, Hemigrapsus oregonensis Introduction ............................................................................................................27 Materials and methods ...........................................................................................31 Study animals .............................................................................................31 Experimental animals and holding conditions ...........................................32 vii Experimental design...................................................................................33 Behavioral Trials ..................................................................................34 Statistical Analyses ..............................................................................37 Results ....................................................................................................................38 Discussion ..............................................................................................................46 Chapter 4: Conclusions ......................................................................................................52 Literature Cited (Chapters 2 & 3) ......................................................................................54 Appendix A: Table of mussel metrics organized by mean ± SE and fluoxetine treatment group. Total biomass was the aggregate wet biomass of mussels per tank (n = number of mussels)..............................................................................................................................65 Appendix B. Mussel growth (length) multiple comparison tests by treatment group and sample date. P-values adjusted by Bonferroni correction. .................................................66 Appendix C. Mussel growth (mass) multiple comparison tests by treatment group and sample date. P-values adjusted by Bonferroni correction. .................................................67 Appendix E. Mussel gonadosomatic (GSI) multiple comparison tests by treatment group and sample date. P-values adjusted by Bonferroni correction. ..........................................68 Appendix E. Mussel condition (CI) multiple comparison tests by treatment group and sample date. P-values adjusted by Bonferroni correction. .................................................69 Appendix F. Plots of residuals from clearance rates model (e.g. mussel experiments). Model fit a normal distribution after data underwent Box-Cox transformation. ...............70 Appendix G. Plots of residuals from growth (length) model. Model fit a normal distribution after data was log-transformed. ......................................................................71 Appendix H. Plots of residuals from growth (mass) model. Model fit a normal distribution after data was log-transformed. ......................................................................72 Appendix I. Plots of residuals from gonadosomatic index (GSI) model. Model fit a normal distribution after data was log-transformed. ..........................................................73